dommDude

possible prerequisites for microwave and radar

1)who discovered microwave?
2)who invented radar?
3)who invented laser?
4)what are maxwell's equations?
5)what are transmission lines?
6)what is intrinsic impedence?
7)what is skin depth?
8)what is SWR?
9)what is the frequency range of microwave?
10)what are the applications of microwave?
11)what are the disadvantages of microwave?
12)what are the applications of radar?
13)what are the sources of microwave?
14)what is the full-form of RADAR?
15)what are the effects of microwave and radar on human beings?
16)what is the difference between microwaves and radar?
17)what are the effects of human beings on using microwave and radar applications?
18)why are radars called so?
19)differentiate between radar and sonar.Explain the principle behind them.
20)why was the RADAR invented?
21)what could be the future of microwave and radar?

1)Microwaves were not really 'discovered'. They were known about in the early days of radio. If you mean microwave cooking,Percy Spencer is credited as having discovered that. While constructing magnetrons for radar devices, he accidentaly blasted his delicious chocolate snack and melted it.
Read more about it here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_oven
The existence of electromagnetic waves, of which microwaves are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, was predicted by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864 from his equations. In 1888, Heinrich Hertz was the first to demonstrate the existence of electromagnetic waves by building an apparatus that produced and detected microwaves in the UHF region. The design necessarily used horse-and-buggy materials, including a horse trough, a wrought iron point spark, Leyden jars, and a length of zinc gutter whose parabolic cross-section worked as a reflection antenna. In 1894 J. C. Bose publicly demonstrated radio control of a bell using millimetre wavelengths, and conducted research into the propagation of microwaves.

The term "microwaves" seems to have first appeared in writing in a 1932 paper by Nello Carrara in the first issue of Alta Frequenza. The Italian word is microonde. The term gained acceptance during the second world war to describe wavelengths less than about 30 cm. These waves were much shorter than those normally used for communications (at that time), but were being used in RADAR.

microwave was not invented, it was discovered.
if you are refering to the microwave oven: Percy Spencer.

Cooking food with microwaves was discovered by Percy Spencer while building magnetrons for radar sets at Raytheon. He was working on an active radar set when he noticed a strange sensation, and saw that a peanut chocolate bar he had in his pocket started to melt. Although he was not the first to notice this phenomenon, as the holder of 120 patents, Spencer was no stranger to discovery and experiment, and realized what was happening. The radar had melted his candy bar with microwaves. The first food to be deliberately cooked with microwaves was popcorn, and the second was an egg, which exploded in the face of one of the experimenters.[1] To be sure his theories were correct, Dr. Spencer then created a high density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power into a metal box which it had no way to escape. When food was placed in the box with the microwave energy, the temperature of the food rose rapidly.

2)Radar was developed by several countries in the mid-late 1930s. The German forces used several systems in WW2 including "Freya" which used arrays of multiple dipoles at VHF and "Wotan" which used parabolic dishes at high VHF or low UHF. Professor Hidegetsu Yagi researched radar for Japan at the same time. In the United Kingdom, the main developer was Robert Watson-Watt.

British radar was better than German though as they used a better system to interpret the results. In addition amateur (ham) radio had been banned in Germany since the Nazis came to power so there were few Germans with general radio experience. The German sets were very well made but simple and fairly low performance so that they could be repaired on site by almost totally unskilled people. By contrast British sets had higher performance but were a little less reliable, and needed people with a bit of training and experience to maintain them.

The kicker though was the invention of the improved cavity magnetron tube in England by physicists Randall and Boot in 1940. This was capable of generating high power at wavelengths of around 10cm without significant drift in operating frequency. The shorter wavelength gave British radar better resolution than the longer wavelengths used by most other countries. When it was sent to the USA, President Roosevelt called it one of the most valuable cargoes to have been sent from the UK to the USA.

The cavity magnetron is still used in microwave ovens.

3)The invention of the laser, which stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, can be dated to 1958 with the publication of the scientific paper, Infrared and Optical Masers, by Arthur L. Schawlow, then a Bell Labs researcher, and Charles H. Townes, a consultant to Bell Labs. That paper, published in Physical Review, the journal of the American Physical Society
In 1957, the laser was conceived by Gordon Gould, a graduate student in physics at Columbia University. When Gould filed for patents in 1959, he found that Columbia professor Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow of Bell Labs had already filed for them. The year before, AT&T had, in fact, demonstrated a working laser at Bell Labs. In 1977, after years of litigation, a court awarded Gould rights to the first of three patents and later to all of them. He finally reaped millions in royalties.

4)I understand your difficulty. The problem is that Maxwell's Equations are not easily understood (in my opinion) from a mathematical point of view. But they are simple and beautiful once you look at them from the physics p.o.v. and see what they mean.

The first Maxwell's Equation is known as Gauss's Law, and it (roughly) states that the electric field multiplied times the a surface around it is equal to the charge enclosed by the surface, divided by a constant (called the permitivity of free space). Now, this first equation does not actually link electricity with magnetism, it's just an electric-only equation.

The second is law is known as the "no magetic monopoles" law by many, or Gauss's Law for Magnetism by others. Nor does this one link electricity and magnetism, but rather just says that all magnetic fields need to have both a source and sink. (Unlike electrical fields, that are quite happy having only a source, and no sink.) You could compare electrical fields to a lightbulb, which just shoots light off in all directions, and it could care not a whit that the light doesn't come back to it. However magnetic fields are more like fountains in a park ... they shoot out water, but the water has to fall back down the drain and get recirculated to shoot out again.

The Third Law is where the good stuff starts ... this one is known as Faraday's Law, and this one binds electricity with magnetism. Specifically, it says that if you move a magentic field through a loop of wire, a current (i.e. electromagnetic force, or voltage) will be created in that wire, as long as you keep moving the magnetic field thorugh the loop. This law is the basis of all electric generators and electric motors; I can use moving magnets to make electricity, or I can use electricity to make magnets move.

The last Maxwell's Equation is Ampere's Law, which Maxwell modified with an additional term and thus secured his position in the history of physics by making it compatible with a future that didn't even exist at the time ... Relativity.

With just a simple line integration, Ampere's Law connects the magnetic field of a current-carying wire with the electric current in the wire. It's what allows your television coaxial cable to work, along with solonoids, rail guns, particle accelerators, etc..

The amazing thing about Maxwell's Laws is that they can all be verified, played with, enjoyed, and studied with just a battery, some wire, a toy compass and a mulitmeter.

Radio Shack used to have some good kits, they may still have them.

5)Lines mainly made from aluminium and carry direct electrical current. One of the most commonly used is aluminium-stranded conductor which has a steel reinforced centre (ASCR) to increase its strength.
These lines (wires) transmit or move electricity over long distances. Usually 69 kilovolts or higher.
TRANSMISSION LINES are heavy wires that carry large amounts of electricity over long distances from generating stations to substations. Transmission lines are held high above the ground on tall structures called transmission towers.

6)In problems of electromagnetic wave propagation in a transmission medium, the electromagnetic impedance, also known as the intrinsic impedance, is defined as the ratio of the electric intensity to magnetic field intensity amplitudes.The intrinsic impedance of free space is 376.7 ohms.
An induced current is a phenomenon that can occur during propagation. There is a parameter called "intrinsic impedance" that will tell you how "in phase" the fields are. The more reactive the intrinsic impedance, the more out of phase the fields will be. If the intrinsic impedance is completely reactive, then the fields will be 90o out of phase. In other words:

E = ηH

where E is the electric field phasor, H is the magnetic field phasor, and η is the intrinsic impedance.

If it seems counterintuitive that the phase difference should increase with the relative reactance, then don't worry. It should seem counterintuitive (based on the idea of circuit impedance, that is). The intrinsic impedance isn't that kind of impedance. It is basically, pretty much just a convenient way to characterize the relative magnitude and phase of a propagating EM wave. A more reactive intrinsic impedance actually corresponds to a more conductive (lossy) propagation medium.
The intrinsic impedance contains the propagation constant of the medium (and therefore the conductance), γ:

η = jωμ/γ

Note that all of these parameters are composite parameters. That is why in a transformer, for instance, the intrinsic impedance (as much sense as you can make of it in a transformer) is extremely reactive, and therefore the fields are far from in phase.

7)Skin depth is the distance from a conductor's surface where the current is e-1, 36.79%, of the value at the surface. Skin depth varies inversely as the square root of the frequency and the conductivity.

Skin depth is a measure of the distance an alternating current can penetrate beneath the surface of a conductor.

When an electromagnetic wave interacts with a conductive material, mobile charges within the material are made to oscillate back and forth with the same frequency as the impinging fields. The movement of these charges, usually electrons, constitutes an alternating electric current, the magnitude of which is greatest at the conductor's surface. The decline in current density versus depth is known as the skin effect and the skin depth is a measure of the distance over which the current falls to 1/e of its original value. A gradual change in phase accompanies the change in magnitude, so that, at a given time and at appropriate depths, the current can be flowing in the opposite direction to that at the surface.The skin depth is a property of the material that varies with the frequency of the applied wave. It can be calculated from the relative permittivity and conductivity of the material and frequency of the wave.

8)Standing waves, SWR - If a transmission line ends in nothing (either an open or a short), 100% of the signal gets reflected back toward the source. The forward moving signal and the backward moving signal pass through each other without affecting each other. But at each point in the line the two signal voltages add together, and considering phase, some places they will subtract. The result is a stationary voltage pattern, called a standing wave, arrayed along the transmission line.

If an incomplete load (something other than 75 ohms) causes less than a 100% reflection, then the standing wave pattern doesn’t show complete cancellation. The ratio of the highest and lowest voltages that can be found along the line is called the Standing Wave Ratio (SWR).

SWR=Vmax/Vmin

An SWR of 1 is good: There is no reflected signal.

An SWR of infinity is bad: There is total reflection.

An SWR of 1.5 is not too bad.

There are formulas that will predict the SWR if the load impedance is known.

A ratio of the maximum amplitude to the minimum amplitude of a standing wave stated in current or voltage amplitudes.
SWR (Standing Wave Ratio)- The measurement of the amount of RF energy reflected back into the transmitter by the antenna. The better the antenna is matched to the transmitter, the lower the SWR. If the Standing Wave Ratio gets high enough, the transmitter will be damaged.
- Standing-wave ratio (SWR) is a mathematical expression of the non-uniformity of an electromagnetic field (EM field) on a transmission line such as coaxial cable. Usually, SWR is defined as the ratio of the maximum radio-frequency (RF) voltage to the minimum RF voltage along the line. This is also known as the voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR). The SWR can also be defined as the ratio of the maximum RF current to the minimum RF current on the line (current standing-wave ratio or ISWR). For most practical purposes, ISWR is the same as VSWR.

9)Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from 1 mm to 1 m, or frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz.
The microwave range includes ultra-high frequency (UHF) (0.3–3 GHz), super high frequency (SHF) (3–30 GHz), and extremely high frequency (EHF) (30–300 GHz) signals.

Above 300 GHz, the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by Earth's atmosphere is so great that it is effectively opaque, until the atmosphere becomes transparent again in the so-called infrared and optical window frequency ranges.The microwave spectrum is usually defined as electromagnetic energy ranging from approximately 1 GHz to 1000 GHz in frequency, but older usage includes lower frequencies. Most common applications are within the 1 to 40 GHz range. Microwave frequency bands, as defined by the Radio Society of Great Britain (RSG,

10)satellite communications,
satellite broadcasting, terrestrial communications,
and others (sensor modules). The main products
of each field are broadband outdoor unit; C-band
(5 to 6 GHz) transmitters, Ku-band (14 GHz)
transmitters, and Ka-band (30 GHz) transmitters;
26 GHz transceivers; and K-band (24 GHz) directoscillation
Doppler sensor modules.
Communication
Before the advent of fiber optic transmission, most long distance telephone calls were carried via microwave point-to-point links through sites like the AT&T Long Lines. Starting in the early 1950s, frequency division multiplex was used to send up to 5,400 telephone channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio channels combined into one antenna for the hop to the next site, up to 70 km away.
Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11 specifications, also use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a uses ISM band and U-NII frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless Internet Access services can be found in many countries (but not the USA) in the 3.5–4.0 GHz range.
Metropolitan Area Networks: MAN protocols, such as WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) based in the IEEE 802.16 specification. The IEEE 802.16 specification was designed to operate between 2 to 11 GHz. The commercial implementations are in the 2.3GHz, 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz and 5.8 GHz ranges.
Wide Area Mobile Broadband Wireless Access: MBWA protocols based on standards specifications such as IEEE 802.20 or ATIS/ANSI HC-SDMA (e.g. iBurst) are designed to operate between 1.6 and 2.3 GHz to give mobility and in-building penetration characteristics similar to mobile phones but with vastly greater spectral efficiency.
Cable TV and Internet access on coaxial cable as well as broadcast television use some of the lower microwave frequencies. Some mobile phone networks, like GSM, also use the lower microwave frequencies.
Microwave radio is used in broadcasting and telecommunication transmissions because, due to their short wavelength, highly directive antennas are smaller and therefore more practical than they would be at longer wavelengths (lower frequencies). There is also more bandwidth in the microwave spectrum than in the rest of the radio spectrum; the usable bandwidth below 300 MHz is less than 300 MHz while many GHz can be used above 300 MHz. Typically, microwaves are used in television news to transmit a signal from a remote location to a television station from a specially equipped van.

[edit] Remote Sensing
Radar uses microwave radiation to detect the range, speed, and other characteristics of remote objects. Development of radar was accelerated during World War II due to its great military utility. Now radar is widely used for applications such as air traffic control, navigation of ships, and speed limit enforcement.
A Gunn diode oscillator and waveguide are used as a motion detector for automatic door openers (although these are being replaced by ultrasonic devices).
Most radio astronomy uses microwaves.
Microwave imaging; see Photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine

[edit] Navigation
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) including the Chinese 北斗卫星导航定位系统 (Beidou), the American Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian ГЛОбальная НАвигационная Спутниковая Система (GLONASS) broadcast navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz.

[edit] Power
A microwave oven passes (non-ionizing) microwave radiation (at a frequency near 2.45 GHz) through food, causing dielectric heating by absorption of energy in the water, fats and sugar contained in the food. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances in Western countries in the late 1970s, following development of inexpensive cavity magnetrons.
Microwave heating is used in industrial processes for drying and curing products.
Many semiconductor processing techniques use microwaves to generate plasma for such purposes as reactive ion etching and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD).
Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War II research was done to examine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early 1980s to research the possibilities of using Solar power satellite (SPS) systems with large solar arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves.
Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away. A two-second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 130 F (54 C) at a depth of 1/64th of an inch (0.4 mm). The United States Air Force and Marines are currently using this type of Active Denial System.[2]

11) Some of the major disadvantages could be that the food gets cooked faster which could result in over cooking of the food. The food can tend to get cooked unevenly, with hot food being on top and cold and uncooked food at the bottom, and so food has to be stirred, at regular intervals, in order to cook food correctly. Microwave oven need specific utensils to cook food as not all metals and alloy vessels can be used. Also all types of food cannot be cooked in a microwave oven; there are certain restrictions as well.
Microwave Ovens

Because the body is electrochemical in nature, any force that disrupts or changes human electrochemical phenomena will affect the physiology of the body. This is described in Robert O. Becker’s book, The Body Electric and in Ellen Sugarman’s book, Warning, The Electricity Around You May Be Hazardous To Your Health. This information is controversial, but from the best sources my research has found.
Microwave ovens were originally developed by the Nazis for use in their mobile support operations. After the war, the Allies discovered medical research done by the Germans on microwave ovens. These documents and the microwave ovens were transferred to the United States War Department and classified for reference and scientific investigation. The Soviet Union also retrieved some microwave ovens and has done the most thorough research on their biological effects. As a result, their use is outlawed. The Soviets have issued an international warning on the health hazards (both biological and environmental) of microwave ovens and similar frequency electronic devices. Other Eastern European scientists reported the harmful effects of microwave radiation and have set strict environmental limits. For reasons not related to health (smile!), the United States has not accepted European reports of harmful effects, even though the EPA estimates that radiofrequency and microwave radiation sources are increasing at 15% per year.

Microwave ovens have effects on the food heated or cooked and on the people who ingest microwaved foods. There are other sources of microwave radiation which includes other emitters of magnetic radiation (e.g. any device with an electric current running through it). Microwave ovens emit two types of radiation: the microwaves or high frequency radio waves, and the 60 Hz (hertz) magnetic fields common to other home appliances. This comes from the transformers in the back. The oven door is the most dangerous place for microwave leakage but magnetic fields can occur all around the oven. This is not good news for children, who love to watch the foods bubbling inside. In addition to oven leakage, microwaving causes adverse effects in food. They include: formation of cancer-causing substances, leakage of toxic chemicals from the packaging into the foods, and destruction of nutrients.

What happens to people who ingest microwaved foods or who are exposed to external sources of microwave radiation?

Carcinogenic Substances in Microwaved Food
The following is a summary of the Russian investigations published by the Atlantis Rising Educational Center in Portland, Oregon. Carcinogens were formed in virtually all foods tested. No test food was subjected to more microwaving than necessary to accomplish the purpose, e.g. cooking or thawing or heating to insure sanitary ingestion. Here’s a summary of some of the results:
Microwaving prepared meats sufficiently to insure sanitary ingestion caused formation of d-Nitrosodiethanolamines, a well-known carcinogen.
Microwaving milk and cereal grains converted certain of their amino acids into carcinogens.
Thawing frozen fruits converted their glucoside- and galactyoside-containing fractions into carcinogenic substances.
Extremely short exposure of raw, cooked or frozen vegetables converted their plant alkaloids into carcinogens.
Carcinogenic free radicals were formed in microwaved plants, especially root vegetables.
To this list, I will add results reported in the December 9, 1989 Lancet. Microwaving baby formulas converted certain trans-amino acids into their synthetic cis-isomers). Synthetic isomers, whether cis-amino acid or trans-fatty acids, are not biologically active. Further, one of the amino acids, L-proline, was converted to its d-isomer, which is known to be neurotoxic (nervous system) and nephrotoxic (kidneys). It’s bad enough that many babies are not nursed. Now they are given fake milk (baby formula) made even more toxic via microwaving.

Decrease in Nutritive Value of Microwaved Foods
Russians researchers reported a marked acceleration of structural degradation leading to a decreased food value of 60 to 90% in all foods tested. Among the changes observed were:

Decreased bioavailability of vitamin B complex, vitamin C, vitamin E, essential minerals and lipotropic factors in all foods tested.
Various kinds of damage to many plant substances, such as alkaloids, glucosides, galactosides and nitrilosides.
The degradation of nucleoproteins in meats.

Leakage of Chemicals from the Package into the Food
The January/February 1990 Nutrition Action Newsletter reported on the leakage of numerous toxic chemicals from the heat-susceptor packaging of common microwavable foods, including pizzas, French fries, popcorn, and anything requiring a crispy crust or a crunchy taste. Microwave ovens cannot make foods brown and crisp or crunchy. No problem! Heat susceptors are visible thin, gray strips or disks of metallized plastic that absorb microwave energy and turn the surface of the package into a very hot little frying pan, which does the trick!

There are many chemicals that can be used in heat-susceptor packages, all approved of by the FDA (whew, I was worried!). What was not recognized, however, was that susceptors could reach temperatures of 300 to 500 degrees F in the microwave. When they do, the chemicals in the plastic migrate from the susceptors into your food. The FDA tested susceptor packages in 1988. Every package tested released chemicals into the food. Among these were PET (polyethylene terpthalate, a petroleum-derived product), and other known or suspected carcinogens, such as benzene, toluene and xylene.

Industry says, “No sweat, no health hazard.” Nutrition Action Newsletter reports, “The FDA has asked packaging manufacturers to identify the chemicals and to submit data on how much they migrate and the health hazards they pose.” What a comfort!

Pathogenic Changes Observed in Consumers of Microwaved Food
Changes were observed in the blood chemistries and the rates of certain diseases among consumers of microwaved foods. The following is a sample of these changes:

Lymphatic disorders were observed, leading to decreased ability to prevent certain types of cancer.
An increased rate of cancer cell formation was observed in the blood.
Increased rates of stomach and intestinal cancers were observed.
Higher rates of digestive disorders and a gradual breakdown of the systems of elimination were observed.

Death from Microwaved Blood
In 1991 there was a lawsuit in Oklahoma concerning the death of Norma Levitt, who died following hip surgery from a simple transfusion. The nurse who gave her the transfusion warmed the blood in a microwave oven. The woman died when she received the transfusion. Blood for transfusions is routinely warmed, but not in microwave ovens. This tragedy reveals that the blood was altered during microwaving into a lethal substance. Since the body is electrochemical in nature, any force that changes human electrochemistry will also change the physiology of the body.

Other Sources of Microwave Radiation
Microwave Sickness
The Russians did research on thousands of workers who had been exposed to microwaves during the development of radar in the 1950’s. Their research showed health problems so serious that the Russians set strict limits of 10 microwatts for workers and one microwatt for lay people. In the above-mentioned book, Becker described research of the Russians on the health effects of microwave radiation, which they called microwave sickness. He says (page 314) “Its first signs are low blood pressure and slow pulse. The later and most common manifestations are chronic excitation of the sympathetic nervous system (stress syndrome) and high blood pressure. This phase also often includes headache, dizziness, eye pain, sleeplessness, irritability, anxiety, stomach pain, nervous tension, inability to concentrate, hair loss, plus an increased incidence of appendicitis, cataracts, reproductive problems, and cancer. The chronic symptoms are eventually succeeded by crises of adrenal exhaustion and ischemic heart disease (blockage of coronary arteries and heart attack).”

General Effects of Magnetic (60 Hz) fields from all Electronic Devices
These effects have been widely studied by the Russians and other European scientists and over 300 U.S. scientists.

In addition to microwave ovens, other commonly used devices may be dangerous because people use them daily, sleep near them (within field range) or work near them. The most common of these are electric stoves, TV’s, VDT’s (the display monitors of computers), cellular telephones, portable telephones, clock radios (usually placed closed to the head of the bed), electric hair dryers, radar gun speed-detectors, and ham radios. The list also includes residential magnetic fields from power transmission lines, distribution lines and incorrect wiring configurations in the home.

The effect has to do with the source of magnetic radiation as well as the part of the body it strikes. For example, the cellular telephone and the portable radiophones both emit high magnetic fields. When in use, they are held next to the head where the radiation strikes the pineal gland, inhibiting its production of melatonin. Melatonin is a hormone that inhibits breast cancer, among other functions.

Some Recent Personal Experiences
Since 1986, I lived in a California house, which had been wired incorrectly resulting in a low level magnetic field almost throughout the house. In August 1992, my family moved to a country home near Eugene, Oregon. I excitedly ran around our new home with my Trifield Meter on the magnetic detector mode. To my delight, it registered zero everywhere! Settling down in our new home, the first thing I noticed was that I was sleeping quite well for the first time in six years! I believe that my sleeplessness was not all due to everyday stress, but also to electromagnetic pollution in my California home! If you are an insomniac, do not assume it is solely because of your financial or personal problems! It may be electronic smog, an apt term.

One day, when the weather turned colder, I noticed that my feet felt warm in the kitchen, even though I was barefoot. The floor. It’s electrically heated and the heat was not on when I first measured it during the hot season! The entire kitchen and recreation room read high levels of magnetic radiation on my meter (over 10 milligauss). The dangerous thing about electrically heated floors is that they are a planar source of radiation, which does not fall off rapidly. My meter read high magnetic field radiation from my feet to my eyeballs! Common appliances are point sources of radiation, which fall off rapidly, dropping to zero at around three feet. It was an easy solution to turn off the fuses that controlled the heating of the electric floors. Better cold feet than magnetic sickness! Beware! Test the magnetic field effects in your home when the power is on and at peak times of power output! Otherwise, you may not detect high magnetic field conditions. I recommend a Trifield meter or similar measuring device to everyone. It can save you a lot of health problems!

Protect Yourself!
How do you know if you are being zapped? Don’t wait for the health effects. Instead, measure the levels of electromagnetic radiation in your house with a Trifield Meter or similar device. The following publications will give you hints on what to do when you find dangerous emissions.

References
Becker, Robert O., M.D., The Body Electric, William Morrow & Co., Inc., 105 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016, 1985.
Becker, Robert O., M.D., Cross Currents, Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc., 5858 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90036, 1990.
Brodeur, Paul, Currents of Death, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1989. Sources of Trifield Meter: Cutting Edge Catalog, POB 2143, Southampton, New York 11969, (800) 497-9516; (516) 287- 3813 (NY Metro). Has excellent catalog.

These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. Not intended to diagnose, prescribe for, treat or claim to prevent, mitigate or cure any human disease. The third party information referred to herein is neither adopted nor endorsed by this web site but is provided for general informational purposes. Any person suspecting disease conditions should seek the advise of a licensed physician.

12)The information secured by radar includes the position and velocity of the object with respect to the radar unit. In some advanced systems the shape of the object may also be determined. Commercial airliners are equipped with radar devices that warn of obstacles in or approaching their path and give accurate altitude readings. Planes can land in fog at airports equipped with radar-assisted ground-controlled approach (GCA) systems, in which the plane's flight is observed on radar screens while operators radio landing directions to the pilot. A ground-based radar system for guiding and landing aircraft by remote control was developed in 1960.

Radar is also used to measure distances and map geographical areas (shoran) and to navigate and fix positions at sea. Meteorologists use radar to monitor precipitation; it has become the primary tool for short-term weather forecasting and is also used to watch for severe weather such as thunderstorms and tornados. Radar can be used to study the planets and the solar ionosphere and to trace solar flares and other moving particles in outer space.

Various radar tracking and surveillance systems are used for scientific study and for defense. For the defense of North America the U.S. government developed (c.1959–63) a radar network known as the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS), with radar installations in Thule, Greenland; Clear, Alaska; and Yorkshire, England. A radar system known as Space Detention and Tracking System (SPADATS), operated collaboratively by the Canada and the United States, is used to track earth-orbiting artificial satellites.

Use in Tactical Air Control Both airborne and shipboard radar is a major link in an operational system. It directs fighter aircraft to a favorable position for intercepting enemy aircraft. The air control officer can determine the number of fighters so they can successfully attack and destroy the enemy. Airborne early warning (AEW) aircraft, equipped with high-powered radars, are used in tactical air control. These aircraft extend the range of air control radar by operating in areas outside the range of the shipboard or land-based radar. The Aviation Electronics Technician (AT) rating maintains AEW equipment. Use in Fire Control The highly directional characteristics of radar make it suited for directing fire control systems. Focusing the radar energy into a narrow beam enables it to display target position with a high degree of accuracy. At the same time, it also displays target range. The primary purpose of fire control radar is to determine the correct position and attitude the aircraft should be in to hit the specified target. Radar, in its early stages of development, was useful as an aid to the human eye under poor visibility conditions. It also provided a more accurate and faster means of range measurement. Presently, it provides a faster and more accurate method of directing fire control than is humanly possible. This feature is extremely important considering the high speeds of today's aircraft and missiles. The time available to launch an intercept weapon effectively is measured in fractions of a second.APPLICATIONS OF RADAR Radar was originally devised as an instrument to detect approaching ships or aircraft. Practice and experience in reading the scope soon showed that radar could do much more. By plotting successive positions of enemy ships and aircraft, you could determine their course and speed. Further experience made it possible to determine whether the target was a battleship, destroyer, aircraft, or a group of targets. Also, an aircraft's altitude could be determined.IDENTIFICATION FRIEND OR FOE (IFF) The problem of distinguishing friend from foe in warfare has increased because of the increased speed of aircraft and ships. Radar can detect both sea and air targets at long range. However, it displays both friend and enemy similarly on the scope. It is not practical to wait until the target has been visually identified to begin preparing for battle. A method other than visual recognition must be used for early identification of the target. IFF is an electronic system that allows a friendly craft to identify itself automatically before approaching near enough to threaten the security of other naval units. A transponder in the friendly aircraft receives a radio-wave challenge (interrogation). The transponder transmits a response to a proper challenge, as shown in figure 7-24. Upon receiving the proper challenge, the transponder automatically transmits a coded reply, which tells the challenger that a friend has been challenged. The transponder stays in a standby condition and transmits only when the proper challenge is received. The challenger's receiver accepts the reply of the challenged target and presents the replies on an indicator. All operational aircraft and ships of the armed forces carry transponders to give their identity when challenged. For operations involving only friendly

13)Vacuum tube based devices operate on the ballistic motion of electrons in a vacuum under the influence of controlling electric or magnetic fields, and include the magnetron, klystron, traveling-wave tube (TWT), and gyrotron. These devices work in the density modulated mode, rather than the current modulated mode. This means that they work on the basis of clumps of electrons flying ballistically through them, rather than using a continuous stream.

A maser is a device similar to a laser, except that it works at microwave frequencies.

Solid-state sources include the field-effect transistor, at least at lower frequencies, tunnel diodes and Gunn diodes

14)radio detection and ranging

15)
Today, more than 90% of American homes have a microwave oven, used for meal preparation. It is perhaps the most successful appliance introduction of the 20th century. There's some evidence it might be right up there with other 20th century miracles that, while solving one problem, created others: miracles like processed foods, additives, pesticides, and packaging. Some of these innovations were thrust upon consumers without much thought about the longer-term problems they create. The Russians have done thorough research on their biological effects, and as a result, their use was outlawed there in 1976. Other Eastern European scientists also reported the harmful effects of microwave radiation and set up strict environmental limits for their usage. The United States has not accepted the European reports of harmful effects, even though the EPA estimates that radio frequency and microwave radiation sources in America are increasing at 15% per year. The Nazis originally developed microwave radiomissor cooking ovens for use in their mobile support operations, to be used for the invasion of Russia. By being able to utilize electronic equipment for preparation of meals on a mass scale, the logistical problem of cooking fuels would have been eliminated, as well as the convenience of producing edible products in a greatly reduced time-factor.

Artificial vs. Natural Microwaves
Microwaves are very short waves of electromagnetic energy that travel at the speed of light. Microwave ovens contain a magnetron, a tube in which electrons are affected by magnetic and electric fields in such a way as to produce micro wavelength radiation at about 2450 Megahertz (MHz) or 2.45 Gigahertz (GHz). This microwave radiation interacts with the molecules in food. All wave energy changes polarity from positive to negative with each cycle of the wave. In microwaves, these polarity changes happen millions of times every second. Food molecules--especially the molecules of water--have a positive and negative end in the same way a magnet has a north and a south polarity. As the microwaves generated from the magnetron bombard the food, they cause the polar molecules to rotate at the same frequency, millions of times a second. All this agitation creates molecular friction, which heats up the food. The friction also causes substantial damage to the surrounding molecules, often tearing them apart or forcefully deforming them. The scientific name for this deformation is structural isomerism. By comparison, microwaves from the sun are based on principles of pulsed direct current (DC) that don't create frictional heat; microwave ovens use alternating current (AC) creating frictional heat. A microwave oven produces a spiked wavelength of energy with all the power going into only one narrow frequency of the energy spectrum. The toxic effects of microwave cooking are another in a long list of unnatural additives in our daily diets. Artificially produced microwaves are based on the principle of alternating current. Atoms, molecules and cells hit by this hard electromagnetic radiation are forced to reverse polarity 1 to 100 billion times a second. Production of unnatural molecules is inevitable. Naturally occurring amino acids undergo isomeric changes (changes in shape morphing), as well as transformation into toxic forms, under the impact of microwaves produced in ovens. There are no atoms, molecules or cells of any organic system able to withstand such a violent, destructive power for any extended period of time, not even in the low energy range of milliwatts. Of all the natural substances, which are polar, the oxygen of water molecules reacts most sensitively. This is contrary to the conventional heating of food, in which heat transfers convectionally from without to within. Cooking by microwaves begins within the cells and molecules where water is present and where the energy is transformed into frictional heat.

Effects on Cells
In addition to violent frictional heat effects (called thermic effects), there are also athermic effects, which have hardly ever been taken into account. These athermic effects also deform the structures of molecules and have qualitative consequences. For example, the weakening of cell membranes by microwaves is used in the field of gene-altering technology. Because of the force involved, the cells are actually broken, thereby neutralizing the electrical potentials--the very life of the cells--between the outer and inner sides of the cell membranes. Impaired cells become easy prey for microorganisms. Natural repair mechanisms are suppressed, and cells are forced to adapt to a state of energy emergency--they switch from aerobic to anaerobic respiration. Instead of water and carbon dioxide, hydrogen peroxide and carbon monoxide are produced. Any reversal of healthy cell processes may occur because of a number of reasons, and our cells then revert from a robust oxidation to an unhealthy fermentation. The same violent friction and athermic deformations, that can occur in our bodies when we are subjected to radar or microwaves, happens to the molecules in the food cooked in a microwave oven.

A microwave oven decays and changes the molecular structure of the food by the process of radiation. We've all been told that microwaving food is not the same as irradiating it. The two processes are supposed to use completely different waves of energy and at different intensities. In fact, when food is microwaved, the oven exerts a power input of about 1,000 watts or more. This radiation results in destruction and deformation of molecules of food, and in the formation of new compounds, called radiolytic compounds, unknown to man and nature. Neither established science nor our government had conducted tests--on the blood of the eaters--of the effects of eating various kinds of cooked foods until Hans Hertel--the first scientist to conceive of and carry out a quality study on the effects of microwaved nutrients on the blood and physiology of humans. The conclusion was clear: microwave cooking changed the nutrients so that significant unhealthy changes took place in the blood of the participants who consumed microwaved food--changes that could cause deterioration in the human systems. These changes included a decrease in all hemoglobin values and cholesterol values, especially the HDL (good cholesterol) and LDL (bad cholesterol) values and ratios. Lymphocytes (immune cells) showed a more distinct short-term decrease following the intake of microwaved food than after the intake of all the other variants. Each of these indicators, point in a direction away from robust health, and toward degeneration. Additionally, there was a highly significant association between the amount of microwave energy in the test foods and the luminous power of luminescent bacteria exposed to serum from test persons who ate the microwaved food. This led Hertel to the conclusion that such technically derived energies may be passed along to humans inductively via consumption of microwaved food.

Other Effects
There's some concern about the interaction between food and its wrapping in the microwave oven. The FDA is investigating "heat susceptor packaging," which allows crusty foods like pizza to get crisp. The temperatures within these containers reach 400° to 500° F.--conditions not foreseen when the materials were originally approved for food use. A 1988 FDA Memorandum of Conference described a "breakdown" of the packaging, and states that "a considerable number of volatile components of the heat susceptor packaging become indirect food additives" from microwaving. The plastic wrap that works best in microwave cooking, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), has been under suspicion for some time. Apparently the migration of plasticizers from PVC films to food is highest where there is direct contact between the film and foods with a high surface-fat content. Plastic-wrapped microwaved meats (specifically pork and chicken) measured the most contamination. Like the susceptor packaging, plastic wraps were approved for food use before microwave ovens were envisioned. Most recently it was discovered that furans and dioxins migrate to food from microwaveable paper trays such as those that hold prepared meat dinners.

Packaging problems aside, what about the potential hazard of the microwaves themselves? Since 1971, microwave ovens have been required to meet government standards that include door interlocks to prevent operation if the door is open, and limits on the amount of microwaves allowed to leave them. But all appliances eventually become worn or malfunction. Microwaves can escape if the door seal is loosened, or is disrupted by food debris or a paper towel. If a gas burner malfunctions, you can see it or smell it. But there is no such evidence if a microwave oven starts to emit radiation.

The story of microwave emission standards is a disquieting one. According to a 1980 article in Science magazine, the standards were established in the 1950s, when research on microwaves was just beginning; by those concerned with military applications, where risk is inherent and accepted, not by medical or environmental experts, who strive for zero risk. Consumer Reports tests have shown microwave leakages to be within government standards. The trouble, according to editor Louis Slesin of Microwave News, is that "nobody knows where the threshold for ill effects really is. In my opinion, microwaves play a role in the development of cancer ... we don't know how little it takes." A 1988 report from the National Institute of Environmental Health Science cited microwave ovens as one source of potentially hazardous EMFs. The report states, "Exposure possibly may affect the nervous system and susceptibility to chemical exposure." The 1990 draft report from the EPA, sought to classify electromagnetic fields as a "probable human carcinogen," placing them in the same category as PCBs, DDT, and formaldehyde. At this writing, that classification has been deleted from the EPA report (for technical and possibly for political reasons).

Cancer
Carcinogens are formed in virtually all foods tested. In scientific tests, no test food was subjected to more microwaving than necessary to accomplish the purpose of cooking, thawing or heating to insure sanitary ingestion. Microwaved foods caused stomach and intestinal cancerous growths, as well as a general degeneration of peripheral cellular tissues, with a gradual breakdown of the function of the digestive and execrative systems. There is a binding effect to radioactivity in the atmosphere, thus causing a marked increase in the amount of alpha and beta particle saturation in foods. There is a creation of cancer-causing agents within protein hydrolysate compounds in milk and cereal grains (unnatural proteins that are split into unnatural fragments by the addition of water). Microwaving prepared meats sufficiently, to insure sanitary ingestion, result in the formation of d-nitrosodienthanolamines, well-known carcinogens. Microwaving milk and cereal grains converted some of their amino acids into carcinogens. Thawing frozen fruits converted their glucoside (hydrolyzed dextrose) and galactoside (hydrolyzed alcohol) containing fractions into carcinogenic substances. Extremely short exposure of raw, cooked or frozen vegetables converted their plant alkaloids into carcinogens. Carcinogenic free radicals are formed within certain trace mineral molecular substances in microwaved plants, especially root vegetables. Due to chemical alterations within food substances, malfunctions are observed within the lymphatic systems causing a degeneration of the immune potentials of the body to protect against certain forms of neoplastics (abnormal growth of tissue). Microwaved foods cause a higher percentage of cancerous cells within the blood serum (cytomas--cell tumors such as sarcoma).

Decrease In Nutritional Value
Russian researchers reported a marked acceleration of structural degradation, leading to a decrease of 60 to 90% of the vital energy field content in all foods tested. Among the changes observed were: Decreased bio-availability of vitamin B-complex, vitamin C, vitamin E, essential minerals and lipotropics factors in all food tested. There is various damage to many plant substances, such as alkaloids, (organic nitrogen based elements), glucosides, galactosides and nitrilosides. The degradation of nucleo-proteins in meats was found.

Microwave Sickness
The Russians did research on thousands of workers who had been exposed to microwaves during the development of radar in the 1950's. Their research showed a breakdown of the human life-energy field, so serious that the Russians set strict limits of 10 microwatts exposure for workers and one microwatt for civilians. The first signs of microwave sickness are low blood pressure and slow pulse. The later and most common manifestations are chronic excitation of the sympathetic nervous system (stress syndrome) and high blood pressure. This phase also often includes headache, dizziness, eye pain, sleeplessness, irritability, anxiety, stomach pain, nervous tension, inability to concentrate, hair loss, plus an increased incidence of appendicitis, cataracts, reproductive problems, and cancer. The chronic symptoms are eventually succeeded by crisis of adrenal exhaustion and ischemic heart disease. Changes are observed in the blood chemistries and the rates of certain diseases among consumers of microwaved foods. Lymphatic disorders were observed, leading to decreased ability to prevent certain types of cancers. An increased rate of cancer cell formation was observed in the blood. Increased rates of stomach and intestinal cancers were observed. Higher rates of digestive disorders and gradual breakdown of the systems of elimination were observed.

There is degeneration and destabilization of the external energy activated potentials of food utilization within the processes of human metabolism and of internal cellular membrane potentials while transferring catabolic processes into the blood serum from the digestive process. There is a degeneration and breakdown of nerve electrical circuits and loss of energy field symmetry in the neuroplexuses both in the front and the rear of the central and autonomic nervous systems, along with a loss of balance and circuiting of the bioelectric strengths within the ascending reticular activating system (controls the function of consciousness). There is long-term cumulative loss of vital energies within humans, animals and plants that are located within a 500-meter radius of operational equipment. There is long-lasting residual effects of magnetic "deposits" located throughout the nervous system and lymphatic system. There is destabilization and interruption in the production and maintence of hormones in males and females by continually eating microwaved foods.

Continually eating food processed from a microwave oven, or using cell phones, causes permanent brain damage by shorting out electrical impulses in the brain (depolarizing or demagnetizing the brain tissue). There is markedly higher levels of brainwave disturbance in the alpha, theta, and delta wave signal patterns of persons exposed to microwave emission fields, with a resultant negative psychological effects, including loss of memory, loss of ability to concentrate, suppressed emotional threshold, deceleration of intellective processes, and interruptive sleep episodes. Microwaves cause long-term depolarization of tissue neuroelectric circuits with irreversible damage to the neuroelectrical integrity of various components of the nervous system, in individuals subjected to continual range emissive field effects of microwave apparatus, either in cooking apparatus, in transmission stations, and PCS cell phones. The human body cannot metabolize the unknown byproducts created in microwaved food.

Burns
Several reports have been published or radiation injury to the hand and arm while stirring food or removing containers. It's debatable how many injuries are caused by radiation exposure. Proof of an accident is difficult because microwave burns don't produce skin destruction as a fire burn does. The damage is to the peripheral nervous system beneath the skin. The microwave industry defends itself on this "lack of proof" basis. But at least two treating physicians report that patients who received radiation burns during a brief exposure of about 5 seconds had persistent neurological damage to the area even after the skin healed. In many homes, children are allowed to operate the microwave without supervision because of their perceived safety as compared to electric and gas stoves. But there's a danger of burns, besides the unknown radiation dangers. In 1988, the Consumer Product Safety Commission estimated 2,352 thermal burns and scalds from microwave ovens. In sheer number, that's less than 1/6 of the burns attributed to gas and electric ranges with ovens. But numbers don't tell the whole story. According to Matthew Maley of the Shriner's Burn Institute in Cincinnati, conventional cooking units are more broadly distributed, are used more often, and are more often employed in high-risk cooking. Maley's contention is that "oven users do not understand that microwaves heat in a way completely different from conventional heating appliances. This results in actions, which would not be considered by someone using an ordinary cooker. Haste and an attitude that microwave ovens are safer likewise results in injury."

One safety problem that's unique to microwave ovens, described by the Shriner's report, is the so-called eruption phenomenon. When clear liquids are heated in glass, ceramic, or smooth plastic containers, the liquid can become extremely hot even though it doesn't actually boil, and can erupt violently when moved or stirred, or when something (like a spoon or instant coffee) is added to it. How much exposure you get, whether to microwaves themselves or to byproducts of packaging, depends on the volume of use. Consider that the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) tells us the industry projects 4.7 billion "trays, cylinders, bowls, and cups" will be sold each year for use in microwave ovens. That statistic, of course, brings up yet another downside of microwaving--the solid-waste issue. Processed microwaveable foods are among the worst culprits of over-packaging. If you wanted to introduce an herbal supplement into the American mainstream and make any health claims for it, you would be subjected to exhaustive documentation and costly research. Yet the microwave-oven industry had only to prove that the dangerous microwaves could, be contained within the oven and not escape into the surrounding area where the radiation could do damage to people. The industry must admit that some microwaves escape even in the best-made ovens. So far, not one thought has been given by the industry to the possibility that the nutrients could be so altered as to be deleterious to health. This makes sense in a land that encourages farmers to poison crops and soils with massive amounts of synthesized chemicals, and encourages food processors to use additives that enhance shelf life of foods regardless of the potential for degrading the health of the consumer.
a nine-member team of government experts headed to a U.S. military base on the Marshall Islands to explore the possible health effects of a radar on the Kwajalein Atoll. If all goes according to government plans, the U.S. will move this radar to the Czech Republic to become part of its European missile-defense shield. Defense Ministry presentation of the preliminary findings from the Marshall Islands expedition, intended to mollify local fears that the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the radar will have a negative impact on the health of those living in its vicinity.the input of the entire radar base will be between 3 to 4 megawatts, while the radar itself will have an input of 1.2 megawatts.If this data is true, it means the government’s experts are trying to convince us that the [radar] has an energy force … of around 14 percent. In a car engine, this level reaches 30 percent.”ministry experts capped the radar’s maximum energy output at 170 kilowatts, which is well below the Czech legal limit. The maximum output of the radar was mapped at 0.8–4.5 megawatts, or up to 26 times higher than the amount currently publicized by the ministry. Assume everyday exposure 10 ft from radome in an occupational setting.
AThe prime mission of airborne weather radar is the detection, processing and display of weather phenomena with the objective of generating advance warning of potentially threatening weather. A typical state-of-the-art Doppler radar is capable of providing real-time surveillance and advance warning of potentially severe weather systems to pilots, and definitely contribute to the safety and well being of all people who fly. An example of this type of system is the Rockwell Collins WXR-700 color weather radar (military designation FMR-2000-X). This system is widely used in commercial and military aircraft. This system provides full precipitation detection, turbulence detection, forward-looking windshear detection, and an additional skin paint mode capable of detecting tanker size aircraft out to 20 nautical miles. This system uses a coherent Doppler X-Band (9300 – 9500 MHz) transmitter with a nominal output of a few hundred watts of microwave power. In general, these systems are not operating when the aircraft is on the ground. However, there may be circumstances, especially during maintenance and testing, that ground personnel may be exposed to the X-band radiation emitted by the system. It should be noted that X-band systems are widely used in military aircraft, especially in high powered fire control systems found for example on the F-15 and F-16 aircraft. Therefore, there is much experience on the evaluation of emitters in this frequency band. Commonly available broadband instrumentation used to measure microwaves is extremely accurate in this frequency band, primarily due to the short (~ 3 cm) wavelength of the emitted microwave radiation. There is a large database of calculated and measured hazard distances of X-band systems. The power output of weather radars, however, is many orders of magnitude lower than fire control radars. While fire control systems have the potential to overexpose personnel, it is a common misconception that any system found in the radome of an aircraft nose is dangerous. This is basically incorrect for modern weather radars. It is quite correct to say that antennas operating in this frequency band produce very narrow, almost pencil-like beams at distances less than 10 feet from the antenna. Typically, these beams will also be scanning. Both these conditions will tend to minimize an individual’s exposure to the microwave radiation. In the X-Band region, the IEEE C95.1 Radiofrequency Radiation Standard(1999), as well as the ACGIH Threshold Limit Value (2000) has an exposure limit of 10 mW/cm2 for controlled (occupational) exposures, averaged over 6 minutes. For uncontrolled (essentially public areas), the IEEE has a exposure limit of 6.67 mW/cm2, with a slightly longer averaging time. Measurements made on a typical WXR-700 system by the USAF in 1996 were unable to produce levels that are above either the controlled or uncontrolled limits recommended by IEEE. Therefore, in general, it is safe to assume that these systems are de minimis emitters that under normal operations on the ground, are incapable of overexposing personnel to recommended standards in wide use both in the United States and the rest of the world. In the case of Europe, the recommendations of the International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection(ICNIRP) are often used, and they are very similar to the IEEE/ACGIH limits. Of course, in operating these systems, it is important to follow the manufacturer recommendations, and never to place any part of the body in region of the antenna and the feed horn. This area is always potentially dangerous. However, it is unlikely, when the system is operating normally on the flight line, that levels exceeding IEEE, ACGIH, or ICNIRP will be encountered by ground personnel. Older systems generally operating at lower frequencies (1000 – 2000 MHz) are becoming less common, but would have similar characteristics.

16)Radio, television, radar, and the human eye have much in common because they all process the same type of electromagnetic energy. The major difference between the light processed by the human eye and the radio-frequency energy processed by radio and radar is frequency. For example, radio transmitters send out signals in all directions. These signals can be detected by receivers tuned to the same frequency. Radar works somewhat differently because it uses reflected energy (echo) instead of directly transmitted energy. The echo, as it relates to sound, is a familiar concept to most of us. An experienced person can estimate the distance and general direction of an object causing a sound echo. Radar uses microwave electromagnetic energy in much the same way.

Radar transmits microwave energy that reflects off an object and returns to the radar. The returned portion of the energy is called an ECHO, as it is in sound terminology. It is used to determine the direction and distance of the object causing the reflection. Determination of direction and distance to an object is the primary function of most radar systems.

Telescopes and radars, in terms of locating objects in space, have many common problems. Both have a limited field of view and both require a geographic reference system to describe the position of an object (target). The position of an object viewed with a telescope is usually described by relating it to a familiar object with a known position. Radar uses a standard system of reference coordinates to describe the position of an object in relation to the position of the radar. Normally ANGULAR measurements are made from true north in an imaginary flat plane called the HORIZONTAL PLANE. All angles in the UP direction are measured in a second imaginary plane perpendicular to the horizontal plane called the VERTICAL PLANE. The center of the coordinate system is the radar locati

• 7 August 2008
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